基本粒子群算法

采用URDF文件构建机器人的3D模型，采用gmapping包实现了机器人工作环境的地图构建，这一节将利用amcl包和move_base包实现移动机器人的自主导航

三维孔洞储层建模及其地震波场正演模拟，理论讲解很透彻，分析思路清晰1290地球物理学进展26卷预测结果,即从具有确定性资料的控制点(如井点)解释.同时,利用该过程中产生的6冂井的时深关出发,推测出点间(如井间)确定的、唯一的储层参系,用三角剖分网格建立了速度模型并经过井点校数随机模拟是从一个随机函数z(v)中抽取多个可正,实现了对工区构造框架的时深转换通过以波阻能实现,即人工合成反映Z()空间分布的可供选择抗为协变量的孔隙度属性模拟,借助于三维可视化的、等概率的高分辨率实现技术,我们可以大致看到孔洞储集体的形态、分布、对于该工区来说,三维地震资料分辨率较高,对规模及连通性(图1).根据孔隙度发育情况,我们将孔洞储层已经有一定的反映(常表现为低频、不连续强储层分为孔洞欠发育(致密)、孔洞较发育(较致密)振幅反射).通过岩石物理分析又发现孔洞储层低速、和孔洞发育(较疏松)三种类型并分别设计了各自相低密,常规波阻抗反演能够刈其几何形态、空间接触应的弹性参数,同时以模拟出的孔洞形态约束弹性关系定量表征.因此本文将波阻抗数据体作为协变波正演模拟时孔洞体的空间分布量地震属性纵向等值法),采用确定性的协克里金2波动方程正演模拟原理插值算法,对孔洞储层的物性参数进行了三维建模反演所起到的作用,是通过归一化的测井曲线对碳酸盐岩岩溶风化壳孔洞型油气藏属于一种典原始地震数据进行校正,使数据在空间上得到了有型的、复杂的非均质范畴,可以视为由准均匀介质中效的平衡,从而使孔洞反映的更清楚;二是在地质建呈不规则分布的、大小和形状各异的低速体共同组模过程中通过宏观控制,充分利用空间变量的相关成的非层状储集体.在地震剖面上看到的储集体的性,克服低频模型的不足提高属性模拟的分辨率波应是这些低速体的散射(绕射)波.若利用常规波2【V动方程正演模拟方法所使用的均匀介质中的声波方N()程或弹性波方程,难以得到具有复杂非均匀性的孔cline洞型油气藏的地震波场响应2.因此,本文采用非均匀横向各向同性弹性介质中的弹性波波动方程进l()行正演模拟计算,取z轴为垂直对称轴,它可以表示为如下的一阶方程组:a0awta(λ+2naU)+AW(1)7(1(λ1+21)2+λax图1地质模型孔洞储集体俯视图Fig 1 Top view of the cavity reservoiμ(ain geological model其中:(U(x,z,t),W(x,z,t)是速度向量;B(x,z)是密度ρ=g(x,z)的倒数,或者叫疏度;r建模过程中最大的难点是求取准确的速度场,τ(x,z,t),za=x(x,z;t),n=rn(x,z,t)是应木文首先收集整理了工区内6口探井、评价井的钻力张量.A,P/和A1,p分别为水平和垂直方向上井分层数据及多种测井曲线(电阻率、声波时差、密的拉梅系数;为一新的弹性常数可见,在横向各度、自然伽玛等),对其进行了归一化和环境校正,并向同性弹性介质中,独立的弹性常数有五个,它们是制作了合成记录.通过与井旁地震道对比准确标定密度、在垂直方向上的纵、横波速度及纵、横波的各了前中生界侵蚀顶面(15)石炭系双峰灰岩顶面向异性系数,即:(T5。),中下奥陶统顶面(T7)、下奥陶统蓬莱坝组顶面(T7),它们都是区域性的波峰反射在此基础+2uL, Vsi-A pL上采用25m*25m测线密度对该区块6.25km2的3U地震数据体T5°、T5、T74、T78层位进行了精细√λ1+2,CSV闵小刚,等:三维孔洞储层建模其地震波场演模拟1291在具体的有限差分解法上,除了规则网格外,非均匀介质模型的弹性波动方程正演模拟特别是种较为先进的交错网格(图2)最早由 madariaga提当每一个波长中的网格点数多于10个时, Levander出, Virtex在模拟各向同性介质屮SH波和P(1988)2的结果显示,网格色散与网格各向异性均Sⅴ波时也使用了这种差分网格,其精度为o(△2十可忽略不计△x2),在不增加计算工作量和存储容间的前提下,假设U,W分别为介质在x,z两个方向上的速和常规差分网格相比局部精度提高了4倍,且收敛度分量的离散量,R,T,H分别为rxr=和τx的离速度也较快. Levander2又将这种差分网格的精度散量,Lo,M,L1,M1和M2分别为y,kM,A⊥?P1和提高到o(△t2+△x). Crase2则发展了精度可达任g的离散量在(1)式中,各导数项均用中心差分来意阶的高阶交错网格法,但其计算量和内存要求比代替,在如图2所示的一个交错网格中,U,B在节低阶有限差分法大幅度增加.本文使用的是 Virieux点1处计算;W,B在节点2处计算;R,T,M,L,(1986)1的交错网格差分公式,其差分精度为和M1,L1在节点3处计算;H,M2在节点4处计算(△2+△x2), Ikelle l t和 Yung$ K(199)21说这样()式离散为4明该算法可以糈确、稳定地应用于任总复杂变化的=U+B,(R年,-R…)十B,(I1+-H),wH,n-v++B++△(r}一rn)+By2(T+-+),ry=对++(n+2M4)+,△m+-RW(2)+T+,;+(L1+2M1)△tW+U2)+M2△t鲁←z以将震源函数直接赋在rx和n的节点上来模拟震源,即Soure,t)=R(t)t_(source_x, soure_x, t)=R(t.此外,在震源没有激发之前地下介质内部所质点都是静止的,包括质点振动速度为零和所受应力为零.因此,初始条件为图2一个交错树格Fig. 2 A st0,r(x,z,t)=0(t≤0)(3)对于自山表面边界条件,本文采用了模型空间其中,上标k为时间t的离散量,下标i,分别为x的上部加空气的条件,然后再采用吸收边界条件把和z的离散量.△,△x,△z分别为t,x,z的步长空气上边界的弹性波吸收掉,对于空气的下界面,则鉴于 Ricker子波对地震波的分辨率较其它子作正常的分界面来认识,从而获得和实际应用中波函数高,因此,震源选用 Ricker子波,其形式为所采用的地表放炮、地表接收达到一致的效果.R(t)=[1-2Lmf(t-to)] Jexp[-(rf(E to))2]有限差分法在求解波动方程时,会产生不期望式中f表示子波的主频,t为子波持续时间,t为f的数值频散或称网格频散,导致数值模拟结果分辨的函数,在模拟地下激发的地震波时,有限差分交错辛降低2所谓数值频散实质上是一种因离散化求网格中的正应力x和x=是在同一节点上赋值的,解波动方程而产生的伪波动,这种频散既不同于波而vr和vn在节点处的数值并没有参与计算,因此可动方程本身引起的频散,也不同于因波传播的速度1292地球物理学进展26卷频率和角度变化而引起的频散,它是有限差分方法果我们在这里仅分为三种类型:孔涧欠发育(致求解波动方程时所固有的本质特征,无法避免.为了密)、孔洞较发育(较致密)和孔洞发育〔较疏松).消除这种数值频散,前人进行了大量研究,他们的结论是基木一致的,即为了消除数值频散,在使用二阶表1地层框架内各层物性参数有限差分方法时,每个功率对应的波长至少必须使Table I The properties ot each layer用11个网格点,面四阶有限差分则可用二阶差分网in stratigraphie framewor格点数的一半.木文采用的稳定性条件,即计算稳定p(nu/s) v(m/s) (kg/m3)的离散参数区域为151:r4G界面2500三叠系)以Lmd2m≤1(2m-1)fT50界面下石炭系顶)~T46l730≤Ld2m≤T56界面(2m-1)!(巴楚组顶)~T5023102350其中,T74界囿(下奥陶系顶)~T56±8002470T78界面(蓬芠坝组颠)灬T7460002650界面以3702此外,在做波动方程的模型计算时,由于只能在对于试验工区的每条线,其长度均为1625m个有限区域进行,而弹性波在其计算边界上能量为了侏证该区域内均为满叠、孔洞的绕射波收敛以衰诚并不为零,从而产生很强的边界反射,这是模型及边界吸收较为干净,我们在模型的左边延长了计算时所不希望的,需要做人工吸收戌衰减处理,计1200m,右边延长了1575m(延长部分的地层接触算吸收边界的方法有许多种,一般情况下网格周围系并不代表真实情况),即模型总长度为1、4km,的耗散采用质点的速度和应力值乘上一个小于1深度范围为4000~6500m每条线均采用了同样的的因子来平滑的衰减;另种可能性是在网格周围观测系统,具体为:采用零相位对称雷克子波作为震使用低Q值来实现吸收作用,但是后者的吸收效果源(主频40玎z),单边放炮(共20炮,每炮128个检不如前者的吸收效果好,因此本文采用的是第一种波器接收)炮间距160m,检波器间距20m,8次叠方法,具体实珧时釆用了〔 eran等的吸收边界条加,最小偏移距0m,最大偏移距2540m,记录长件实现边界吸收1.6s,Δt=2ms,第一炮的坐标位置为(-1200,0)exp[-a2(I-i)2],1≤i≤1.基于差分稳定条件,取模型中最小介质速度2500m/s其中,I为给定的吸收边界带总节点数;i为吸收边为参考,得到的计算参数为:网格剖分间隔3m界内的节点编号;a为衰减系数,其值的选定与1的3m,时间延拓步长为0.27ms,每个波长(62.5m)大小密切相关,且对吸收效果的影响很大本文中Ⅰ内有20.8个网格.我们一共对33条线进行了正演取为40(即围绕计算区域,再向外设置宽度为40个模拟,图3展示了较为典型的 inline2585线(位于研网格的条形吸收区域)a=0.305/40,i取从0~40究工区的中心部位,地层接触关系以及孔洞体的分节点号.在条形吸收区域中的每个网格结点处,对全布相对比较复杂),从中可以大致看出二维正演模拟部的5个波场量(U,W,R,T,H),在每计算一个时的普遍情况与孔洞体波场响应特征的一般规律问步长后,都做少量的波场减表2展示∫该条线上各孔洞体的几何及物性参3模型计算数,其中④号属于欠发育(充填致密物)类型,①③⑥号属于较发育(充填较致密物)类型,②⑤号属于发在正演之前,我们统计了工区的速度、密度资育(充填较疏松物)类型.此外,建模过程中,我们还料,为了简化模型,并使得孔洞体的地震响应特征更考虑了线与线之间地层起伏渐变、孔洞大小渐变孔具有针对性,我们采用了背景为常速介质、蜜度参数洞物性参数渐变的过程,即所有建模因素都渐变由( arner公式计算的思路(表1).对于孔洞储集的而不是突变,最终保证了三维地震数据体的连体,根据钴井揭示和前面提到的孔隙度属性模拟结续性4期闵小刚,等;三维孔洞储层建模及其地震波场正演模拟1293表2各孔洞储集体的几何及其物性参数最大振幅,且绕射曲率与反射曲率相同,表明二者具Table 2 The geometry and propcrty parameters有不同的传播速度;每个绕射波可分为左右、上下f each cavity reservoir正、反向绕射分支,正向绕射分攴的相位与反射P孔润体尚度宽度vVP波相同,反向绕射分支的相位反转180°,与反射P(m)(m)(m/s)(m/s)(kg/m3)充填物屮心距界面(m)波的相反17396500029002503较致密105弹性波正演模拟生成的炮域合成记录被导人10113480027822470较疏松6FOCUS软件进行常规处理,包括速度谱拾取、动82784500029002500较致密85校、切除、增益、滤波、叠加、偏移和变面积、变密度显①575520030222530致密示等.由于在观测系统中只设计了8次覆盖,为了增⑤18115480027822470较疏松104加速度谱拾取精度,本文采用了由相邻的7个CDP2714850029002500较致密86道集混合构成一个超道集的办法,隔10个CDP拾图4是该模型在590ms时的波场快照,其波场取一个速度文件,并在拾取前先作常规NMO校正清晰,网格频散小,边界吸收较干净这表明,在求解切除,使得原始道集记录能量更强、信噪比史高二维弹性波动方程时,将差分解法和交错网格技术图5、图6分别是TK610井、TK623井所在位置处相结合,通过较好地使用吸收边界和稳定性条件可CDP道集记录及其速度谱,从图中可见各个反射界以显著削弱数值频散,有效地提扃计算精度.同时面的同相轴清晰可辨,对应的能量团集中,而在合成在保证一定的精度前提下,可以采用铰大的空间网记录上T7界面下孔洞所在位置处都有一明显的格间距,提高计算效率.从图巾还可看出,孔洞绕射同相轴,能量团也比较集中,由于TK610升比波和反射波在绕射点处相切,在切点处绕射波具有TK623井孔洞储集体更为发育(尽管二者振幅相1200-80004008001200160020002400280040004505500图3主测线2585地质模型Fig 3 Geclcgical model ol inline258-12004004008001200160045000.10.3图4主测线2585在590ms时波场快照Fig. Snapshot of wave field at 590ms in inlinc25851294地球物理学进展26卷Sg224-230CDP49 SE QNO250030003500400045000.240.60.60.80.8TE1.01. 01.21.2141.4图5TK610井所在位置处CDP道集记录及其速度谱ig. 5 The CDP gather and velocity spectrum at well TK610Sgl58-1640.2ONO250030003500400045000.0.40.60.60.8081.0:1.01212623(2565图6TK623井所在位置处CDP道集记录及共速度谱Fig 6 The CDP gather and velocity spectrum at well TK623当,在地质模型设计时均认为是充填较疏松物,但相消),使得T7界面断断续续,并在该界面下出现TK610井比TK623井在目的层段的厚度要大,横些“短反射”通过仔细分析,我们发现“短反射”中向展布范围也更宽测试产能更高),在合成记录上较强者出现的时间,与孔洞位置相对应.从该模型的孔洞对应的同相轴振幅更强、波形更连续,速度谱上偏移剖面上(图b)可以看到,所有的孔洞体均得到能量团也更强、更集中比铰好的偏移成像,并表现为负正负三个相位的图7是处理完后的叠加和偏移剖面.从叠加剖波形.但鉴于反射波地震勘探的纵向分辨率(大于面上(图a)可以比较清楚的看到孔洞体顶、底的两1/4波长),所有能检测出的孔洞或孔洞组合在叠加组强反射,但是二者之间出现具有绕射特征的弱波剖面上都叠合在T74界面下第一个波峰轴上,在偏代替了成层的背景,这些绕射波的相互下涉(相长、移剖而上都体现在T7界面下第一个黑椭圆体上,4期闵小刚,等:三维孔洞储层建模及其地震波场正演模拟1295601001401802202603003401001401802202603003400.00.00.20.2040.40.60.60.81014露9.926c+089.926e1081022e+091022e+09图?主测线2585对应的叠加剖而(a)和偏移剖面(b)Fig. 7 The stacking section (a) and migration section (b) of inline2585至」其下的“串珠”是孔洞的假象(孔洞组合与围岩(b)之间的多次波及绕射波经偏移归位后形成较强短反L2560L2580L2600射).由于T74界面反射波与沿纵横向有一定分布的孔洞(比较明显的是①、⑤号)的绕射波叠加,使得30001300040孔洞所在位置处T74界面反射波能量变弱,而孔洞底部与下覆围岩之间的正极性反射由于受T7界200600面反射波的负值性续至波叠加,也变得较弱.此外,B40080在构造高点上(④⑥号孔洞体所在位置,④号更为明显),由于孔洞引起的绕射与隆起引起的回转波的相6003600100互丁涉,T56和T7界面不连续,甚至在其间出现空白反射,而实际资料也有这种情况.这说明,对于塔3800800200和油田碳酸盐岩孔洞储集体这类特殊的油气储层来400040001400400说,在解释时遇到层位问断时,不能轻易地开断层,而应该综合考虑构造、孔洞绕射等地震波场特征.这图8联络测线2795实际剖面(a)和正演剖面(b)对比也是塔河油出勘探开发实践中发现“表层弱反射、内Fig 8 Comparison of the actual section (a) and幕强反射”地震特征对应有利储层的一个佐证forward modeling section (b)in crossline2795依据以上思路与工作流程,我们得到了33条沿主测线方向的二维偏移剖面,在并成三维体之前,为而正演模拟釆取的是8次叠加、道间距10m),正演了尽量消除线与线之问因地层起伏造成的不闭合,剖面较好的反映了实际情况.这不仅体现在层位的我们采取先把33条线的速度文件并成三维体,整体形态、分布比较相似(由于速度取了平均,各层的厚平滑后两用每条线对应的、平滑后的速度对其原始度不一致,但不影响我们的主要的,即对孔洞体地共中心点数据进行动校、叠加、偏移的办法,得到33震响应特征的分析),更重要的是,我们所设计的孔条新的二维偏移剖面,再并成一新的三维体,此外,泂体,其位置、形状规模、振幅强弱均与实际地震资由于正演模拟数据体线间距为50m,道间距为料具有相当好的对应关系,这表明我们在止演模拟10m,其空间采样率比实际资料低,本文编制了相和处理时的设计思想和参数选取原则是合理的,这应的算法在频率域对其进行插值,使线间距加密到结果也为我们进行后续工作提供了比较好的数据25m图8是联络测线2795在时间域的实际剖面源由于实质上是2.5维,不是基于面元的真三维,(a)和正演剖面(b)对比,排除二者在采集时的一些所以沿联络测线的剖面上同相轴有抖动现象,这是差异(如实际三维采集资料为24次叠加道间距25m,不可避免的)1296地球物理学进展26卷4结论与建议2]谢桂生,刘洪,赵连功,伪谱法地震波正演模拟的多线程并行计算[冂.地球物理学进展,2005,20(1);17~23.本文从三维角度,建立了与实际资料比较吻合Xie G S, Liu H, Zhao L G. Parallel Algorit hm based on the的孔洞储层模型,并进行了弹性波正演模拟,总结了multithread Technique for pseudospectal modeling of seismic地震响应规律,主要结论如下:wave[J]. Progress in Geophysics(in Chinese), 2005, 20(1)1)结合地震资料建立储层地质模型能够有效[3]刘财,张智,邯志刚,等.线性粘弹体屮地震渡场伪谱法模拟地降低储层模型的不确定性,提高建模精度.同时利技术[门].地球物理学进展。:005,20(3),640~644,用协克里金技术,用波阻抗反演的确定性信息约束Liu C, Zhang Z, Shao Z G, et aL. Pseudo-spectral forward储层的平面非均质性,可以实现孔隙度属性的确定modeling nf seismic wave in linear viscoelasic solid [J]P1性建模),2005,20(3):640~644.4」张智,刘财,邵志刚,伪谱法在常Q粘弹介质地震彼场模拟(2)在求解二维弹性波动方程时,将差分解法和中的应用效果[].地球物理学进展,2005,20(4):945交错网格技术相结合,通过较好地使用吸收边界和949,稳定性条件可以显著削弱数值频散,有效地提高计Zhang Z, Liu C, Shao G. The application of pseudo-spectral算精度.同时,在保证一定的精度前提下,可以采用forward modeling of seismic wave field in constant Q较大的空间网格间距,提高计算效率该方法具有广viscoelastic medium [J]. Progress in Geophysics, 2005,20(4)945~949泛的适用性5]盖良国,马在出,曹景忠,等.一阶弹性波方程交错网格高阶(3)孔洞储集体在偏移剖面上表现为负-正-负差分解法[冂].地球物理学报,200,43(3):411-~419三个相位的波形,但只能确定奥陶系风化面下第Dong LG, Maz T, Cao j Z, et al. A staggered-grid high个负相位是孔洞的发育位置,其下的“串珠”是孔洞order difference method of one-order elastic wave equation]的很象.风化面反射波与沿纵横向有一定分布的孔Chinese J. Geophys. (in Chinese),2000,43(3):411-419洞体的绕射波叠加,使得孔洞所在位置处风化面反[6]董艮国,马在田,曹景忠,一阶弹性波方程交错网格高阶差分解法稳定性研究[门].地球物理学报,200,43(6):856~射能量变弱,而孔洞底部与下覆闱岩之间的正极性反射由于受风化面透射波的负值性续至波叠加,也Dong L G, Ma Z T, Cao J Z. a study on stability of the变得较弱.该结论对于实际地震资料处理、解释以及staggcred-grid high-order difference method of first-order储层预测烃类检测具有普遍的指导意义elastic wave equation. Chinese J. Gcophys. in Chinese)2000。43(6);856~864本文不足之处主要有三点「7]萤良国.复杂地表条件下地震波传播数值模找1.勘探地球(1)在三维孔隙度建模时采用的是常规阻抗信物理进展,2005,28(3);187~194息(约束稀坑脉冲反演),其纵向分辨率不够(只能分Dong L G. Numerical simulation of seismic wave propagation辨1/4波长以上的孔洞储集体),在后续工作中将尝under complex near surface conditions [J]. Progress in试使用地质统计学反演的阻抗体来约束建模以大幅Exploration Geophysics(in Chinese), 2005, 28(3):187--194提高纵向分辨能力[8奚先,姚姚,二维随机介质及波动方程正演模拟[.石油地球物理劫探,2001,36(5):546-552(2)在弹性波正演模拟时采用的是2.5维思想XiX, Yao Y. 2D random media and wavc cquation forward口前正在研制全三维算法有望更逼真的还原孔洞储modeling [J]. Oil Geophysical Prospecting in Chinese集体的真实地下情况001,35(5);546~5523)考虑到缝的各向异性更为复杂,本文尚未涉9]奚先,姚姚,二维粘弹性随机介质中的波场特征分析[刀地及,对于碳酸盐岩中这类油气运移的重要通道,将在球物埋学进展,2004,19(3):608~615今后的工作中进一步研究Xi x, Yao Y. The analysis of the wave field characteristics in2-D viscoelastic random medium LJ. Progress in Geophysics参考文献( References):hinese),2004,19(3):608~[10]奚先,姚姚,二维横各向同性弹性随机介质中的波场特征1]刘文岭.大庆宋芳屯油田芳2区块地震与地质资料综合储层J.地球物理学进展,2004,19(4):924~932地质建模研究(博土论文儿D1.北京:中国地质大学,2002Xi x, Yao Y. The wave field characteristics of 2-DLiu W I. A Study on Reservoir Geological Modeling withclo].ESeismic and Well-log Data in Fang 2 Area of DaqingGeophysics(in Chinese), 2004,19(4):924-932ongfangtun Oil Field (doctor dissertation)(in Chi[111吴永国,贺振华,黄德济.串珠状溶涧模型介质波动方程正Beijing: CUG, 2002.演与偏移[.地球物理学进展,2008,23(2);539~5444期闵小刚,等:三维孔洞储层建模及其地震波场正演模拟1297Wu Y G, He Z H, Huang d J. Wave equation forward[19]肖玉茹,何峰煜,孙义梅,等,古洞穴型碳酸盐岩储层特征modeling and migration for heads-shaped corroded cave model研究一以塔河油田奥陶系古洞穴为例匚门。石油与天然气地EJ]. Progress in Geophysics(in Chinese), 2008, 23(2): 539质,200324(1):71~80.Xiao YR, He f Y, Sun Y M, et al. Reservoir charactetistics12]股文,印兴耀,吴国忧.高特度频率域弹性波方程有限差分of paleocave carhonates-a casc study of Ordovician paleocave方法及波场模拟[」.地球物理学报,2006,49(2):561in tahe oilfield, Tarim basin UJ]. Oil Gas Geology(inChinese),2003:24(1):71-80Yinw, YinXi,WuGC. 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软件测试报告 珍藏版。好用记得回复推荐哦目 录1. 测试概述 31.1. 编写目的 31.2. 测试范围 31.3. 参考资料 32. 测试计划执行情况 32.1. 测试类型 32.2. 测试环境与配置 42.3. 测试人员 42.4. 测试问题总结 43. 测试总结 53.1. 测试用例执行结果 53.2. 测试问题解决 73.3. 测试结果分析 84. 综合评价 84.1. 软件能力 84.2. 建议 8

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微电子电路设计第五版,Richard C. Jaeger, Traveis N. Blalock编著。FIETH EDITIONMICROELECTRONICHM-M- CIRCUIT DESIGNRICHARD C. JAEGERAuburn UniversityTRAVIS N. BLALOCKUniversity of VirginiaMcGrawEducationGrawEducationMICROELECTRONIC CIRCUIT DESIGN. FIFTH EDITIOPublished by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121 CopyrightC 2016 by McGraw-Hill EducationAll rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions 2011, 2008, and 2004. No part of thispublication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system,without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or otherelectronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learninSome ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United StatesThis book is printed on acid-free pape1234567890DOw/DOw1098765ISBN978-0-07-352960-8MHID0-07-352960-5sident Products markets Kurt LVice President, General Manager, Products Markets: Marty Langece President, Content Design Delivery: Kimberly Meriwether DavidManaging director: Thomas TimpGlobal Publisher Raghu srinivasanDirector. Prodrelopment: RoDirector, Digital Content Development: Thomas Scaife, Ph DProduct develoVincent brashMarketing manager: Nick Mc faddenDirector, Content Design Delivery: Linda avenariusProgram meSchillingContent Project Managers: Jane Mohr, Tammy Juran, and Sandra M. SchneeBuyer: Jennifer PickelDesign: Studio Montage, St Louis, MOContent Licensing Specialist: DeAnna DausenerCompositor: MPS LimitedPrinter.R. DonnellAll credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright pageLibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataJaeger. Richard cMicroelectronic circuit design/Richard C. Jaeger, Auburn University,Travis N. Blalock, University of Virginia. --Fifth editionpages cmIncludes bibliographical references and indexISBN978-0-07-352960-8(alk. paper)-ISBN0-07-338045-8(alk. paper)d 1. Integrated circuits--Design and construction. 2. Semiconductors--Design and construction. 3. Electronic circuitesign. I. Blalock, Travis N. Il. TitleTK7874.J3332015621.3815-dc232014040020The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicatean endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy ofthe information presented at these siteswww.mhhe.comTOTo Joan, my loving wife and life long partnerRichard C. JaegerIn memory of my father, Professor Theron vaughnBlalock, an inspiration to me and to the countlessstudents whom he mentored both in electronicdesign and in life.Travis n blalockBRIEF CONTENTSPreface xxChapter-by-Chapter Summary XXV12 Operational Amplifier Applications 685PART ONE13 Small-Signal Modeling and LinearSOLID-STATE ELECTRONICS AND DEVICESAmplification 77014 Single-Transistor Amplifiers 8411 Introduction to Electronics 32 Solid-State Electronics 4115 Differential Amplifiers and Operational Amplifier3 Solid-state Diodes and Diode circuits 72Design 9524 Field-Effect Transistors 14416 Analog Integrated Circuit Design Techniques 10315 Bipolar Junction Transistors 21517 Amplifier Frequency Response 111318 Transistor Feedback Amplifiers andPART TWOOscillators 1217DIGITAL ELECTRONICSAPPENDICES6 Introduction to Digital Electronics 2837 Complementary MOS (CMOS) Logic Design 359A Standard Discrete Component Values 12918 MOS Memory Circuits 414B Solid-State Device Models and sPIce simulationParameters 12949 Bipolar Logic Circuits 455C TWo-Port Review 1299PART THREIndex 1303ANALOG ELECTRONICS10 Analog Systems and Ideal OperationalAmplifiers 51711 Nonideal Operational Amplifiers and FeedbackAmplifier Stability 587CONTENTSPreface xxCHAPTER 2Chapter-by-Chapter Summary XXVSOLID-STATE ELECTRONICS 41PART ONE2.1 Solid-State Electronic materials 432.2 Covalent bond model 44SOLID-STATE ELECTRONICS2.3 Drift Currents and mobility inAND DEVICES 1Semiconductors 472.3.1 Drift Currents 47CHAPTER 12.3.2 Mobility 48INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS 32.3.3 Velocity Saturation 482.4 Resistivity of Intrinsic Silicon 491.1 A Brief History of Electronics: From2.5 Impurities in Semiconductors 50Vacuum Tubes to Giga-Scale Integration 52.5.1 Donor Impurities in silicon 511.2 Classification of Electronic Signals 82.5.2 Acceptor Impurities in Silicon 511.2.1 Digital signals 92.6 Electron and hole concentrations in1.2.2 Analog Signals 9Doped semiconductors 511.2.3 A/D and D/A Converters--Bridging2.6.1Type Material (ND >NA)52the analog and Digital2.6.2 p-Type Material (N,A>ND)53Domains 102.7 Mobility and Resistivity in Doped1.3 Notational conventions 12Semiconductors 541.4 Problem-Solving Approach 132.8 Diffusion currents 581.5 Important Concepts from Circuit2. 9 Total Current 59Theory 152.10 Energy Band Model 601.5.1 Voltage and current Division 152.10.1 Electron-Hole pair generation in1.5.2 Thevenin and norton circuitan intrinsic semiconductor 60Representations 162.10.2 Energy Band Model for a Doped1.6 Frequency Spectrum of ElectronicSemiconductor 61Signals 212.10.3 Compensated semiconductors 611.7 Amplifiers 222.11 Overview of Integrated circuit1.7.1 Ideal operational amplifiers 23Fabrication 631.7.2 Amplifier Frequency Response 25Summary 661.8 Element Variations in Circuit Design 26Key Terms 671.8.1 Mathematical modeling ofReference 68Tolerances 26Additional Reading 681.8.2 Worst-Case Analysis 27Problems 688.3 Monte Carlo analysis 291.8.4 Temperature Coefficients 32CHAPTER 31.9 Numeric Precision 34SOLID-STATE DIODES AND DIODE CIRCUITS 72Summary 34Key Terms 353.1 The pn Junction Diode 73References 363.1.1 pn Junction Electrostatics 73Additional Reading 363.1.2 nternal diode currents 77Problems 363.2 The i-v Characteristics of the diode 78VIllContents3.3 The Diode Equation: A Mathematica3.15 Full-Wave Bridge Rectification 123Model for the diode 803.16 Rectifier Comparison and Design3.4 Diode Characteristics under reverse, ZeroTradeoffs 124and forward bias 833.17 Dynamic Switching Behavior of the Diode 1283.4.1 Reverse bias 833.18 Photo diodes, solar cells, and3. 4.2 Zero bias 83Light-Emitting Diodes 1293.4.3 Forward Bias 843.18.1 Photo diodes and3.5 Diode Temperature Coefficient 86Photodetectors 1293.6 Diodes under reverse bias 863.18.2 Power Generation from Solar Cells 1303.6.1 Saturation Current in real3.18. 3 Light-Emitting Diodes(LEDs)13Diodes 87Summary 1323.6.2 Reverse Breakdown 89Key Terms 1333.6.3 Diode model for the breakdownReference 134Region 90Additional Reading 1343.7 pn Junction Capacitance 90Problems 1343.7.1 Reverse bias 903.7.2 Forward Bias 91CHAPTER 43.8 Schottky Barrier Diode 933.9 Diode SPICE Model and layout 93FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS 1443.9.1 Diode Layout 944.1 Characteristics of the MOS Capacitor 1453.10 Diode Circuit Analysis 954.1.1 Accumulation Region 1463.10.1 Load-Line Analysis 964.1.2 Depletion Region 1473.10.2 Analysis Using the Mathematical4.1.3 Inversion Region 147Model for the diode 974.2 The nmos transistor 1473.10.3 The Ideal diode model 1014.2.1 Qualitative i-v Behavior of the3.10.4 Constant Voltage Drop Model 103NMOS Transistor 1483.10.5 Model Comparison and4.2.2 Triode Region Characteristics ofDiscussion 104the nmos transistor 1493.11 Multiple-Diode Circuits 1054.2.3 On Resistance 1523.12 Analysis of Diodes Operating in the4.2.4 Transconductance 153Breakdown Region 1084.2.5 Saturation of the i-v3.12.1 Load-Line Analysis 108Characteristics 1543.12.2 Analysis with the Piecewise4.2.6 Mathematical model in theLinear model 108Saturation (Pinch-off)3.12.3 Voltage regulation 109Region 1553.12.4 Analysis Including Zener4.2.7 Transconductance in saturation 156Resistance 1104.2.8 Channel-Length Modulation 1563.12.5 Line and Load Regulation 1114.2.9 Transfer characteristics and3.13 Half-Wave Rectifier Circuits 112Depletion-Mode MosFETs 1573.13.1 Half-Wave Rectifier with resistor4.2.10 Body Effect or SubstrateLoad 112Sensitivity 1593.13.2 Rectifier Filter Capacitor 1134.3 PMOS Transistors 1603.13.3 Half-Wave Rectifier with rc load 1144.4 MOSFET Circuit Symbols 1623. 13.4 Ripple Voltage and Conduction4.5 Capacitances in MOS Transistors 165Interval 1154.5.1 NMOs Transistor Capacitances in3.13.5 Diode Current 117the Triode region 1653.13.6 Surge Current 1194.5.2 Capacitances in the Saturation3.13.7 Peak-Inverse-Voltage(PlV)Rating 119Region 1663.13.8 Diode Power Dissipation 1194.5.3 Capacitances in Cutoff 1663.13.9 Half-Wave Rectifier with Negative4.6 MOSFET Modeling in SPICE 167Output Voltage 1204.7 MOS Transistor Scaling 1683.14 Full-Wave Rectifier Circuits 1224.7.1 Drain Current 1693. 14.1 Full-Wave Rectifier with Negative4.7.2 Gate Capacitance 169Output Voltage 1234.7.3 Circuit and power densities 169ContentsIX4.7.4 Power-Delay Product 1705.3 The pnp Transistor 2234.7.5 Cutoff Frequency 1705.4 Equivalent Circuit Representations for the4.7.6 High Field Limitations 171Transport Models 2254.7.7 The unified mos transistor model5.5 The i-v Characteristics of the bipolarIncluding High Field Limitations 172Transistor 2264.7.8 Subthreshold conduction 1735.5.1 Output Characteristics 2264.8 MOs Transistor Fabrication and layout5.5.2 Transfer characteristics 227Design Rules 1745.6 The Operating Regions of the Bipolar4.8.1 Minimum Feature size andTransistor 227Alignment Tolerance 1745.7 Transport Model Simplifications 2284.8.2 Mos Transistor Layout 1745.7.1 Simplified Model for the Cutoff4.9 Biasing the NMOS Field-EffectRegion 229Transistor 1785.7.2 Model Simplifications for the4.9.1 Why Do We Need Bias? 178Forward-Active Region 2314.9.2 Four-Resistor Biasing 1805.7.3 Diodes in Bipolar Integrated4.9.3 Constant Gate-Source VoltageCircuits 237Bias 1845.7.4 Simplified Model for the4.9.4 Graphical analysis for theReverse-Active Region 238Q-Point 1845.7.5 Modeling Operation in the4.9.5 Analysis Including Body Effect 184Saturation Region 2404.9.6 Analysis Using the Unified5.8 Nonideal Behavior of the bipolarModel 187Transistor 2434.10 Biasing the PMos Field-Effect Transistor 1885.8.1 Junction Breakdown Voltages 2444.11 The junction Field-Effect Transistor5.8.2 Minority-Carrier Transport in theUFET190Base Region 2444.11.1 The JFET With Bias Applied 195.8.3 Base Transit time 2454.11.2 JFET Channel with Drain-Source5.8.4 Diffusion Capacitance 247Bias 1935.8.5 Frequency Dependence of the4.11.3 n-Channel jfet i-v Characteristics 193Common-Emitter current gain 2484.11.4 The p-Channel JFET 1955.8.6 The Early Effect and Early4.11.5 Circuit Symbols and JFET ModelVoltage 248Summary 1955.8.7 Modeling the Early Effect 2494.11.6 JFET Capacitances 1965.8.8 Origin of the Early Effect 2494.12 JFET Modeling in Spice 1965.9 Transconductance 2504.13 Biasing the JFET and Depletion-Mode5.10 Bipolar Technology and sPiCe Model 251MOSFET 1975.10.1 Qualitative Description 251Summary 2005.10.2 SPICE Model Equations 252Key Terms 2025.10.3 High-Performance BipolarReferences 202Transistors 253Problems 2035.11 Practical bias circuits for the bjt 2545.11.1 Four-Resistor bias network 256CHAPTER 55.11.2 Design Objectives for theBIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS 215Four-Resistor bias network 2585.11.3 terative Analysis of the5.1 Physical Structure of the BipolarFour-Resistor bias circuit 262Transistor 2165.12 Tolerances in bias circuits 2625.2 The Transport Model for the npn5. 12.1 Worst-Case Analysis 263Transistor 2175. 12.2 Monte Carlo Analysis 2655.2.1 Forward Characteristics 218Summary 2685.2.2 Reverse Characteristics 220Key Terms 2705.2.3 The Complete Transport ModelReferences 270Equations for Arbitrary BiasProblems 271Conditions 221

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